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Preamble

This article is primarily a study document in which much information has been brought together concisely in one place. It would really help if you had your Bibles open in front of you, because many scripture refer­ences have been given in the text without writing them all out in full — especially in the longer lists — as this would have massively increased the size of the article and also interrupted the flow of the text. With an open Bible before you, you will be able to check all these references for yourself in their context. Not to do so will greatly diminish the richness of our journey together. This could be undertaken in a study group or as an individual Bible study on this profound subject.

INITIAL OVERVIEW

The teaching of the Bible concerning the ‘Trinitarian’ nature of God is probably one of the most misunderstood elements of the Chris­tian faith. This is hardly surprising. Firstly, the teaching is rarely preached upon and therefore there is a great deal of ignorance about it. Secondly, because of its seeming complexity and difficulty to be adequately comprehended, people assume it must be an invented teaching with no biblical references. Thirdly, because it is such a vital teaching — the very heart and revelation of true divinity and deity — it is especially vulnerable to attack.

A number of hurdles have created a stumbling-block for many sincere believers on the teaching of the Trinity: 1) The need to correctly balance the unity of the Godhead with the distinction of personality within it; 2) Drawing the wrong conclusions from the differing emphases in Scripture on the work of individual members of the Godhead; 3) Having insufficient under­standing of the deity and individual personality of especially the Holy Spirit.

Many believers understandably become overwhelmed by in-depth theological treatises on subjects such as the Trinity, which often concentrate on highly involved analyses of historical controversies and convoluted formulae. Therefore, there is a need for a concise, non-technical exposition which simply and compellingly presents the teaching in a way which can be grasped and taken to heart by all believers rather than catering solely for the advanced theological seminarian. This brief study is a humble attempt to do just that.

MAIN INTRODUCTION

The teaching on the Trinity — one God, consisting of three Persons, co-equal in deity — has come to be a central element of the Christian faith. The principal reason for this is because it contains the very heart of true divinity and deity as revealed in the Bible. It is not surprising, therefore, that it should have long been the object of attack from many sides in the unbelieving world, as well as within the visible church itself.

The Three Primary Controversies in the Early Church

In church history — especially during the first few centuries — there were three primary controversies concerning the nature of God. First, there was that which centred on the co-equality, co-eternity and deity of the Son, which had been challenged by a certain Arius (c.250-c.336), who believed that the Son of God was not eternal but had been created by the Father. His unique beliefs, revolving around his denial of the divinity of Christ, came to be known as “Arianism” — beliefs which are still held today by false religions such as the Jehovah Witnesses.

The second main area in which controversy raged over the nature of God in early church history was the individ­ual “personalities” of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, which had been challenged by Sabellius, a third century Libyan priest who sojourned in Rome. His beliefs came to be known as “Sabellianism”. Sabellius regarded the Father, Son and Holy Spirit as merely three different offices, aspects or “modes” of the one God — hence another name given to his belief system was “Modalism”.

Another Trinitarian controversy was known as “Macedonianism”, believed to have its origins with a Bishop of Constantinople (d.c.362). Just as Arianism had denied the co-equality, co-eternity and deity of the Son — the Lord Jesus Christ — Macedonianism denied the co-equality, co-eternity and deity of the Holy Spirit.

It was not until the Council of Nicaea in AD325 and the Council of Constantinople in AD381, that contro­versy over the Trinity was more or less settled. “The One God exists in Three Persons who are One Substance, co-equal in divinity” was the formula.

Making a Formulaic Statement on the Trinity was ‘Forced’ on the Church

The church had, in a sense, been ‘forced’ into developing a written formulation of the teaching of the Trinity as the revelation of God because there were so many attacks on various aspects of deity in respect to the Lord Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. But this does not mean that it is an artifi­cial teaching. The teaching of the Trinity can be approached as a formula if seen purely in the context of a statement of faith. But quite apart from its credal formu­lations, the teaching is simply a gathering together of the biblical data into a comprehensive understanding of deity and especially the self-revelation of deity, for God has chosen to reveal Himself to His human creation in His Triune (three-in-one) nature.

The early Christians knew very well that they had been reconciled to God the Father by the atoning work of the Son of God, of whose divinity and distinct personality they were in no doubt (see Colossians 1:12-19; 2:9), and that this had been applied by the Holy Spirit, who they also knew to be a divine Person, distinct from the Father and the Son (see Acts 5:3-4). Thus, formulating the teaching of the Trinity was simply a matter of stating what all genuine disciples already knew from spiritual experience.

My Main Concern Here is to Redress the Rejection of the Trinity by Christians

In this brief paper, it is not my purpose to concentrate on the many aspects of these historical controversies. There is a great deal of theological and historical litera­ture already devoted to this. My main concern here is to redress the rejection of Trinitarian teaching by many sincere Christians.

From a pastoral standpoint, it is important to recognize that many sincere Christians have a problem with understanding the concept of the Trinity simply because no one has taken the trouble to explain it properly to them and demonstrate it from Scripture. Many have been told, more or less at gunpoint, “Either you accept the teaching of the Trinity or you are a heretic”. Questions on such issues are discour­aged in many circles as being subversive. Furthermore, many church “elders” are ill-equipped to respond helpfully to those who are confused on this issue and thus feel threatened when awkward questions are raised. This leads to an air of confrontation which has even resulted in excommunication, when a clear explanation and an attitude of compassion was really all that was necessary. Those qualities are what I am bringing to the text you are now reading.

There are three principal reasons which have led other­wise sincere disciples of Christ into rejecting the teaching on the Trinity: First, it is said that the nature of God cannot be fathomed or understood and should thus be left as a mystery rather than rendered into a formula. Second, it is claimed that because the word “Trinity” does not appear in the Bible it cannot therefore be a biblical teach­ing. Third, while these sincere believers see clearly that the Father and the Son have distinct “personality”, they do not accept the distinct personality of the Holy Spirit, who is often seen merely as a “force” or “power” or “aspect of God’s activity”.

The third of those objections will be responded to in the main body of this article, but in this introduction I can respond to the first two of those objections.

In responding to the first objection by some Christians to the teaching on the Trinity, I should point out that I have some sympathy with it. It is a daunting thing indeed. There is much which is beyond our full comprehension. Our puny human minds are too earthbound to encompass the full meaning. However, because something cannot be fathomed or properly understood, this should never prevent us from trying to fathom or understand it to the best of our ability. If our inability to understand something fully stood in the way of our education about it, we would never learn anything and thus remain deeply ignorant people. Our mandate is to do all that we can to grasp as much as possible of whatever has been revealed to us either in Scripture or in the course of our lives — an action which is emphasized in Deuteronomy 29:29: “The secret things belong to the LORD our God, but the things revealed belong to us and to our children forever”. Responsible stewardship means not only looking after our income and resources but also our knowledge and our abilities, which must be exercised to the full.

To respond to the second objection by some Christians to the teaching of the Trinity, although the actual word “Trinity” is not found in the Bible as a descriptive term of God, it is nevertheless a valid theological expression which has been composed out of historic necessity in order to refer succinctly to the threefold nature of the Godhead as it has been clearly revealed in Scripture, and as I will show in this article.

The word “Trinity” was first used in reference to the Godhead by Theophilus, Bishop of Antioch (late 2nd century), who expressed it with the Greek word Trias (triad). Around the same time, Tertullian (c. AD160 – c. AD225), in the last decade of the 2nd century, was using the Latin word Trinitatis when writing his apology against a heretic called Praxeas (who eventually recanted his heresy). However, it did not actually become “enshrined” in church theology until the 4th century. Under the leader­ship of Athanasius the teaching was proclaimed to be the faith of the church at the Council of Nicea (AD325), and through the work of Augustine in the following century it was ratified in the Athanasian Creed in the form that is accepted by all Trinitarian churches today.

The creed asserts three principal things: that there is one God; that the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit are each God; and that the Father, the Son and the Spirit is each a distinct ‘Person’, i.e. having personality, though not in any base human sense.

The Idea of the Trinity is Biblical even Though the Word is not in the Bible

It is profoundly illogical to reject the teaching of the Trinity merely because the word does not appear in the Bible. No one has any problem speaking about the Transcendence or Immanence of God; yet neither of those words appears in the Bible. The word “theology” is an accepted reference to the study of God and His self-revelation, yet no one objects to using it on the basis that the actual word does not appear in the Bible. The word “Christology” does not appear in the Bible, yet it is universally accepted as a valid theological term referring to the study of the Person of Christ, especially in relation to His two natures, human and divine. The actual word “millennium” does not appear in the Bible, yet it is a universally accepted term used to refer to the “thousand years” in Revelation 20:1-7. Even the word “Bible” does not appear in the Bible, yet no one rejects it on that basis!

So it is somewhat mystifying that there should be any objection to the word “Trinity” simply because it does not appear in the Bible. This seems to be something of a “red herring”. For regardless of the lack of presence in the Bible of the word “Trinity”, the fact is that the Bible is luminously Trinitarian in its revelation of God from the first book to the very last.

The Creator and Fountain of all things has deliber­ately chosen to reveal Himself in Scripture as one God in three Persons: God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit. These three are not merely “aspects” of God or “modes” of His being. They are distinct Persons who speak, act and are spoken of as individuals, yet essentially remaining as one in substance. Whether or not we can grasp these facts is entirely irrelevant to the force of truth behind it. Given that we have very limited brains (and fallen ones at that!), we could hardly be expected to fathom the reality of the Godhead. Nevertheless, that is how the Lord in His wisdom has chosen to reveal Himself to us; and that is how we should receive that revelation rather than attempting to superimpose our own ideas on it.

Regardless of whether or not the actual word “Trinity” appears in the Bible, the fact remains that “One God in Three Persons” underscores the entire biblical revelation of God — implicitly whispered in the Old Testament and explicitly stated in the New Testament. To deny that would be to reject the plain teaching of the Word of God.

Let us now go on to examine this subject under the following main headings: 1) Foundational Biblical References to the Trinitarian Nature of God; 2) Balanc­ing the Distinction Between the Unity and Plurality of the Godhead; 3) A Demonstration of Deity and Distinct Personality in the Godhead.

I. FOUNDATIONAL BIBLICAL REFERENCES TO THE TRINITARIAN NATURE OF GOD

1. Plurality Inferred in the Godhead in the Old Testament

In common with all other aspects of divine revelation, the concept of a Trinitarian God is revealed progressively throughout the whole of Scripture. Just as the Incarnation of the Son of God as Saviour was not fully revealed in the Book of Genesis, so it is with the Triune (three-in-one) nature of God. However, just as there are definite shadows and portents of the Incarnation (e.g. in Genesis 3:15, where the “Seed” of “the woman” is spoken of as coming to crush Satan’s head), so there are definite shadows and portents of the fact that there is plurality in the Godhead — that there is more than one “Person” in the unity of God.

First, there is the fact that the very word “Elohim” —translated as “God” in the first verse of the Book of Genesis — is plural. Taken on its own this proves nothing in regard to the Trinity; but when taken against the revelation of Scripture as a whole, it can surely be seen as preparatory to and in anticipation of the full revelation of the Trinity.

In the actual account of the creation, we read: “Then God said, “Let Us make man in Our image, according to Our likeness…” (Genesis 1:26). “Us” and “Our” are pronouns which speak of plurality. Exactly the same reality is expressed in Genesis 3:22: “Then the Lord God said, ‘Behold, the man has become like one of Us, to know good and evil’”. “One of Us” — there is plurality in the Godhead. Again, we find the same plurality in Genesis 11:7-8 when the Lord announced the judgement at Babel:

“‘Come, let Us go down and confuse their language, so that they will not understand one another’s speech’. So the LORD scattered them from there over the face of all the earth”.

Genesis 11:7-8

Another example of this intimation of the Trinity by demonstrating plurality in the Godhead occurs in 2 Samuel 23:2‑3:

“The Spirit of the Lord spoke through me. His word was on my tongue. The God of Israel spoke; The Rock of Israel said to me: ‘He who rules the people with justice, who rules in the fear of God, is like the light of the morning…’”.

2 Samuel 23:2‑3

Matthew Henry rightly points out on these verses:

“Some think this is an intimation of the Trinity of persons in the Godhead — the Father the God of Israel, the Son the Rock of Israel, and the Spirit proceeding from the Father and the Son, who spoke by the prophets, and particularly by David, and whose word was not only in his heart, but in his tongue for the benefit of others. David here avows his divine inspiration, that in his psalms, and in this composition, the Spirit of God spoke by him”.

In Proverbs 30:4, we find a clear reference to God the Father and His Son, intimating plurality in the Godhead:

“Who has ascended to heaven and come down? Who has gathered the wind in His hands? Who has bound up the waters in His cloak? Who has established all the ends of the earth? What is His name, and what is the name of His Son—surely you know!”

Proverbs 30:4

Continuing that stream of plurality in the Godhead, we read in the prophet Isaiah: “Then I heard the voice of the Lord, saying: ‘Whom shall I send. Who will go for Us?’” (Isaiah 6:8). Surely, this reference to “Us” is yet another hint of the plurality of personality in the Godhead. Admittedly on a more tenuous footing, some think that there are Trinitarian inferences in the threefold-Lord blessing in Numbers 6:24-26: “The Lord bless you and keep you; may the Lord cause His face to shine upon you, and be gracious to you; may the Lord lift up His countenance toward you, and give you peace”.

Others see the same inference in the triple use of the word “Holy” in Isaiah 6:3: “Holy, holy, holy is the Lord of hosts; the whole earth is full of His glory!” But whatever one’s view on those verses, the fact remains that, already throughout the Old Testament, we find a number of references to the fact that the One True God involves more than one personality. Surely, this is designed to prepare us for further, more lucid, revelation.

2. Distinctly Trinitarian Passages in Both Old & New Testaments

There are many passages in Scripture which clearly reveal the Triune nature of God by making distinct refer­ence to all three Persons of the Trinity within adjacent verses, or even in the same actual verse. If we compare Scripture with Scripture, we can even see the work of the Trinity in creation in the first three verses of Genesis:

“In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. Now the earth was formless and void, and darkness was over the surface of the deep. And the Spirit of God was hovering over the surface of the waters. And God said, ‘Let there be light’, and there was light” (Genesis 1:1-3).

Genesis 1:1-3

There we see reference to both the Holy Spirit and the Son as the Word of God — the Divine Logos — through whom the universe was made. We can see this now with the benefit of hindsight because of the Scriptures which act as a commentary on the creation verses in Genesis. As John puts it at the beginning of his gospel when speaking of the pre-incarnational Christ:

“In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. He was with God in the beginning. Through Him all things were made, and without Him nothing was made that has been made”.

John 1:1-3

Again, with the creation as the reference point, Paul contrasts the polytheism of the heathen with the one God of the Christian, yet referring pluralistically to both “the Father” and the “Lord Jesus Christ”, the Son:

“For even if there are so-called gods, whether in heaven or on earth (as there are many so-called gods and lords), yet for us there is but one God, the Father, from whom all things came and for whom we exist. And there is but one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom all things came and through whom we exist”.

1 Corinthians 8:5-6

Again, Paul says,

“The Son is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation. For in Him all things were created, things in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or dominions or rulers or authorities. All things were created through Him and for Him. He is before all things, and in Him all things hold together”.

Colossians 1:15-17

Then there is Hebrews 1:2, which declares, ”in these last days He has spoken to us by His Son, whom He appointed heir of all things, and through whom He made the universe“. He created all things through the Divine fiat, which began with “Let there be light”. Also, in Hebrews, we read that “to the Son He [God the Father] says… ‘You, Lord, in the beginning laid the foundation of the earth, and the heavens are the work of Your hand’” (Hebrews 1:8-10; cf. Proverbs 8:27-36). From this we can see that at least two “Persons” were involved in the work of the creation; and when we read in Genesis 1:2 that “the Spirit of God was hovering over the face of the waters”, we can surely logically deduce — comparing Scripture with Scripture — that the first three verses of Genesis involved all three members of the Godhead.

Another passage which is brazenly Trinitarian is Isaiah 48:16, in which the pre-incarnate Son of God says: “Come near to Me and listen to this: From the beginning I have not spoken in secret; from the time it happened, I was there.” And now the Lord GOD has sent me, accompanied by His Spirit”.

That verse speaks of both the Lord God and His Spirit as sending the Son on a mission. Matthew Henry says on this verse: “The Spirit of God is here spoken of as a person distinct from the Father and the Son, and having a divine authority to send prophets”. We see the same Trinitarian context of the “sending” of the Son by the Spirit in Isaiah 61:1:

“The Spirit of the Lord God is upon Me, because the Lord has anointed Me to preach good news to the poor. He has sent Me to bind up the broken-hearted, to proclaim liberty to the captives, and freedom to the prisoners”.

Isaiah 61:1

There are three distinct Divine personalities mentioned there. We know that the “Me” who was anointed to preach is the Lord Jesus Christ because He explicitly refers this verse back to Himself in Luke’s gospel by saying: “Today this Scripture is fulfilled in your hearing” (see Luke 4:18-21). So in that verse we see “the Lord God” (the Father), “the Spirit of the Lord God” (the Holy Spirit), and the “Me” who preaches the good news (the Son). That is irrefutably Trinitarian.

This sending by another Person in the Trinity was echoed by the Lord Jesus during His ministry, when He said, “whoever rejects Me rejects the One who sent Me” (Luke 10:16); and to His apostles, He said: “As the Father has sent Me, so also I am sending you” (John 20:21). The Father and the Son and the Spirit plainly have distinct personalities and they act separately and together and are thus not merely different neutral aspects or ‘modes’ of God.

Another Old Testament passage in which there is a shadowing forth of the Trinity is Isaiah 63:8-10, where we see God and his Word and Spirit brought together in the one context:

“For He said, ‘They are surely My people, sons who will not be disloyal’. So He became their Savior. In all their distress, He too was afflicted, and the Angel of His Presence saved them. In His love and compassion He redeemed them; He lifted them up and carried them all the days of old. But they rebelled and grieved His Holy Spirit. So He turned and became their enemy, and He Himself fought against them”.

Isaiah 63:8-10

In that passage, we have three Divine persons: The covenant God of Israel (v.8), the “angel of His presence” (the pre-incarnate Christ, v.9, cf. Genesis 22:11) and the Holy Spirit who was “grieved” by their rebellion (v.10, cf. Ephesians 4:30). The revelation of God as the Trinity is implicit in the Old Testament and explicit in the New, so that we can read the more obscure passages of the Old Testa­ment and understand them in the light of the New.

One of the most famous Trinitarian passages in the New Testament is in Matthew 3:16-17, where all three Persons are involved in the act of the baptism of Jesus:

“As soon as Jesus was baptized, He went up out of the water. Suddenly the heavens were opened, and He saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove and resting on Him. And a voice from heaven said, “This is My beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased!”

Matthew 3:16-17

Again, in Matthew 28:19, we read: “Go therefore and make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit”. One God, three distinct persons.

We also naturally see the Trinity mentioned in the context of salvation: “You were washed, you were sanctified, you were justified, in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ and by the Spirit of our God” (1 Corinthians 6:11). In fact, all three members of the Trinity were individually involved in the Incarnation of Christ. The Father prepared His physical body:

“Therefore, when Christ came into the world, He said: ‘Sacrifice and offering You did not desire, but a body You [i.e. the Father] have prepared for Me’”.

Hebrews 10:5

The Holy Spirit was also involved in the Incarnation, as He is in all creative activity:

“The angel answered, ‘The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you; there­fore, the child to be born will be called holy — the Son of God’”.

Luke 1:35

We can see from this that the Holy Spirit was also involved in sanctifying the union of the Son of God with the manhood of the Lord Jesus Christ. Mary conceived without human fertilization when God the Son not only entered her womb, but also the egg in her womb, under the superintending ministry of the Holy Spirit. [I will be publishing a separate article soon on the vital nature of the Virgin Birth]. Thus, “the Word became flesh and dwelt among us” (John 1:14). The Father prepared the body for the Incar­nation of the Son, and the Holy Spirit superintended the Incarnation. The Trinitarian God in action.

Just as we could expect the Triune God to be involved in the Incarnation and Baptism of Christ, so they were also involved in the coming of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, as Peter revealed:

“God has raised this Jesus to life, to which we are all witnesses. Exalted, then, to the right hand of God, He has received from the Father the promised Holy Spirit and has poured out what you now see and hear”.

Acts 2:32-33

Some of the many other passages which make mention of the Triune God with distinction of personality between them — thus showing the importance of the Trinity to the divinely-inspired New Testament writers — are as follows:

“Therefore I inform you that no one who is speaking by the Spirit of God says, “Jesus be cursed,” and no one can say, “Jesus is Lord,” except by the Holy Spirit. There are different gifts, but the same Spirit. There are different ministries, but the same Lord. There are different ways of working, but the same God works all things in all people”.

1 Corinthians 12:3-6

“The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of God, and the fellowship of the Holy Spirit be with you all. Amen”.

2 Corinthians 13:14

“When the kindness of God our Savior and His love for mankind appeared, He saved us, not by the righteous deeds we had done, but according to His mercy, through the washing of new birth [regeneration] and renewal by the Holy Spirit. This is the Spirit He poured out on us abundantly through Jesus Christ our Savior”.

Titus 3:4-6

“But we should always thank God for you, brothers who are loved by the Lord, because God has chosen you from the beginning to be saved by the sanctification of the Spirit and by faith in the truth. To this He called you through our gospel, so that you may share in the glory of our Lord Jesus Christ”.

2 Thessalonians 2:13-14

“To the elect who are exiles of the Dispersion throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia, chosen according to the foreknowledge of God the Father and sanctified by the Spirit for obedience to Jesus Christ and sprinkling by His blood”.

1Peter 1:1-2

“But you, beloved, by building yourselves up in your most holy faith and praying in the Holy Spirit, keep yourselves in the love of God as you await the mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ to bring you eternal life”.

Jude 20‑21

“Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who has blessed us in Christ with every spiritual blessing in the heavenly realms… in Him, having heard and believed the word of truth—the gospel of your salvation—you were sealed with the promised Holy Spirit, who is the pledge of our inheritance until the redemption of those who are God’s possession, to the praise of His glory”.

Ephesians 1:3, 13-14

Surely there is also more than a veiled Trinitarian reference in Revelation 1:4-5:

“Grace and peace to you from Him who is and was and is to come [the Father], and from the sevenfold Spirit [the Holy Spirit, as we see in Revelation 3:1; 4:5; 5:6] before His throne, and from Jesus Christ [the Son], the faithful witness, the firstborn from the dead, and the ruler of the kings of the earth”.

Revelation 1:4-5

We can see from these texts that the manner in which the human Bible-writers incorporated the three Persons of the Trinity into the Scriptures could almost be described as formulaic. God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit were always being invoked as co-workers in the process of the original creation and also in the full redemption of it.

All the above has been given by way of introduction, as a mere taster of the Trinity in the Bible. Now we will go on to look at the necessity for balance when considering the unity and plurality in the Godhead.

II. BALANCING THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE UNITY AND PLURALITY OF THE GODHEAD

There are two aspects to the Trinity which must be acutely balanced if we are to maintain the teaching in a biblical and faithful manner. The unity of the Godhead — the oneness of God — must be maintained without being at the expense of the distinction of personality. Similarly, the distinction of personality has to be upheld without it lessening the unity of God. It is in the failure to maintain this tension between the unity and distinction of personality in the Godhead that problems have arisen.

Just to expand this a little, there are a couple of primary areas in which there has been a failure to maintain this Trinitarian tension. First, there has been a failure to comprehend that references to “the One God” in the Old Testament do not negate His Triune nature. The assumption here is that because God is described as “one” therefore the teaching of the Trinity must be a contradiction. A Scripture often quoted in this respect is: “Now see that I, even I, am He, and there is no God besides Me” (Deuteronomy 32:39). There is no other god co-ruling with Yahweh. He alone rules over all. Some claim this is proof text against a Trinitarian God. But this verse does not obscure the teaching of the Trinity. Remember that when the Scripture speaks about the one God, it is refer­ring to the Triune God, as we must conclude by compar­ing Scripture with Scripture.

The Trinity does not consist of three separate gods: but One God Jehovah subsisting in Three Persons: Father, Son and Holy Spirit. The Trinitarian Godhead Jehovah is speaking in Deuteronomy 32:39. To contrast the Lord with the polytheism of the heathen cults so prevalent in Old Testament times, great emphasis was placed on the oneness of God. But we must not allow that to unbalance the equally important aspect of plurality within the one God.

Second, there has been a failure to grasp the necessity for emphasis on one Person or another in different situa­tions. Sometimes, in Scripture, more emphasis has been placed on individual members of the Trinity, according to the context. This has led some to draw erroneous conclu­sions. For example, Acts 4:12 could imply that only the Son saves: “Nor is there salvation in any other, for there is no other name under heaven given among men by which we must be saved”. You might say: “But the Father and the Holy Spirit are also Saviours”. It is true that the work of salvation is something belonging to all three Persons of the Trinity. Yet, they must be distinguished by the manner in which they save. This is why both the distinc­tion in Persons and the plurality of the Godhead must be made. The Father saves through the Son by providing Him as a sacrifice for our sins; the Son saves by paying the ransom for our sins; the Holy Spirit saves by applying that ransom to us. But it is the Son who actually pays the price of the ransom, and because of that He alone is given the name Jesus (Matthew 1:21).

Incidentally, it should be understood that although we may speak of the First, Second and Third Persons of the Trinity this does not denote any superiority or inferiority of substance. They are all co-equal in terms of divine status. However, there is a subordination of role. Thus, the Father works through the Son by the Spirit, enabling Christ to say: “My Father is greater than I” (John 14:28). As the Son is sent by the Father, so the Spirit is sent by the Son. As it was the Son’s office to reveal the Father, so it is the Spirit’s office to reveal the Son, as Christ testified: “He will glorify me, for he will take what is mine and declare it to you” (John 16:14). But none of this dissolves co-equality in the Godhead. This can be compared to the relationship in a marriage. A woman is to be subordinate to her husband insofar as her role or office is concerned, but she is still equal before God as a person. God the Son is clearly subordinate to God the Father in terms of His role (cf. 1 Corinthians 15:27-28), but He is still equal in divine status.

Now I will go on to deal with the fact that deity is clearly ascribed to three Persons in the Godhead who each have distinct “personality” from each other.

III. THE DEMONSTRATION OF DEITY AND PERSONALITY IN THE GODHEAD

I am going to approach this by looking at the biblical proofs of deity and distinct personality in each of the three Persons of the Trinity in their turn. It should also be mentioned here that by “distinct” personality, I do not imply separation, as if there are three Gods! There is but one God, three distinct Persons; but not three separate Gods.

1. GOD THE FATHER

A.     His Deity

There is surely no need for proof of this. Probably most people think easily of the Father as being “Big Daddy” — as if He is kind of the “real” God (although that is something of a misconception). The actual phrase “God the Father” occurs sixteen times in the New Testament. The “father­hood” of God is an important part of the life of faith. To believe in the Father is to believe that the first Person of the Trinity is the Father of Christ and therefore to believe is to put our trust entirely in Him.

B.     His Distinct Personality

The Lord Jesus prayed to God the Father as a distinct personality and encouraged prayer to Him as our Father:

“Our Father in heaven, hallowed be Your name” (Matthew 6:9). Similarly, He said: “I will pray the Father, and He will give you another Helper, that He may abide with you forever” (John 14:16). This is a Trinitarian statement, with all three persons being ascribed with distinct personality. The “I” is Christ (God the Son); the “Father” is God the Father; and the “Helper” (Greek: parakletos) is God the Holy Spirit.

Again, the great prayer in John 17 begins with the words: “Father, the hour has come. Glorify Your Son, that Your Son also may glorify You” (John 17:1). Once again, we can see the distinct personality of the Father in this verse.

In Section 1, I have already given many examples of passages which show God the father in the Trinity as a distinct Person. Many other examples could be given.

2. GOD THE SON

A.     His Deity

If this was an article specifically on the subject of Christology, it would be necessary to devote a great deal of space to proofs of the deity of Christ. However, as this is an article on the Trinity and, in particular, one which deals with those difficulties which many sincere Chris­tians have with the Trinity, we need only provide summary evidence here for the deity of Christ.

There are many places where “Lord” has been used in the Old Testament, as a translation of the Hebrew Yahweh (Jehovah), and it is then quoted in the New Testament as referring to Christ. Here are some examples:

  • Compare Isaiah 8:13-14 with 1 Peter 2:7-8.
  • Compare Isaiah 40:3 with Matthew 3:3.
  • Compare Isaiah 6:1-10 with John 12:37-41.
  • Compare Isaiah 45:23 with Romans 14:10-11.

Thus Scripture ascribes deity to Christ.

Other passages which prove the deity of Christ are:

  •  John 1:1-18 (where Christ is called the Word, Greek: Logos, who is God).
  •  Romans 9:5 (where Christ is referred to as the one “who is over all” and also as “the eternally blessed God”).
  •  Co1.2:9 (where it is said of Christ: “For in Him dwells all the fullness of the Godhead bodily”).
  •  Tit.2:13, “looking for the blessed hope and glorious appearing of our great God and Saviour Jesus Christ”.
  •  John 20:28 (when the apostle Thomas said: “My Lord and my God” when he saw the wounds on Jesus’s body).
  •  Revelation 22:13 (where the Lord Jesus is said to be “eternal”).

The Lord Jesus also claimed deity for Himself:

  • John 5:17-29 (where we see that the Jews plainly acknowledged that Christ claimed deity for Himself and also spoke of Himself as the Judge on the Day of Judgement).
  • John 10:30 (where he says, “I and My Father are one”).
  • John 8:58 (when the Lord Jesus referred to Himself by the divine name “Truly, truly, I tell you,” Jesus declared, “before Abraham was born, I AM!” (see Exodus 3:14 as the proof of what Christ was claiming here).
  • Mark 2:7-11 (where, after the Lord Jesus heard the Pharisees saying, “Who can forgive sins but God alone?”, He went on to heal a paralyzed man and then said point­edly that He had done it “that you may know that the Son of Man has power on earth to forgive sins” — a sure claim to divinity if ever there was one!).
  • Hebrews 1 (where the Lord Jesus is shown to be the divine Son of God in comparison to the angels).
  • To Satan, the Lord Jesus said: “You shall worship the Lord your God, and Him only you shall serve” (Matthew 4:10). Yet the Lord Jesus never discouraged those who worshipped Him (see e.g. Matthew 8:2; 9:18; 14:33; 15:25; 28:9,17; Mark 5:6; 15:19; Luke 24:52; John 9:38).

Truly, the Lord Jesus Christ is the Son of God, the second Person of the Trinity and very God of very God.

B.     His Distinct Personality

This surely needs no more proof, as I have already shown that the Bible is replete with examples of the distinct personality of the Son in the Godhead. The definitive example must surely be when God the Father says: “This is My beloved Son…” (Matthew 3:17; 17:5, etc.). Even King David distinguished between the Father and the Son in Psalm 110:1: “The Lord said to my Lord, ‘Sit at My right hand, till I make Your enemies Your footstool’”’. In case you still doubt this, one can see that the Lord Jesus clearly refers this verse to Himself in Matthew 22:41-45.

3. THE HOLY SPIRIT

We shall focus far more on the Holy Spirit as a distinct divine personality because there is a great deal more contention over this. Many of the difficulties people have with the Trinity centre on whether or not the Holy Spirit is a person with separate “personality” from the Father and the Son.

It is most important to begin with this, and to understand it correctly. Some people have real difficulty with this concept. There are a couple of reasons for this.

Firstly, the language of Scripture sometimes speaks of the Holy Spirit as having been “breathed”, “shed abroad” or “poured out”. How can such terms be used of a Person? Well, the language is symbolic, figurative and not literal. As water which is poured out ‘descends’, so the Holy Spirit has come down from heaven to earth. Water also purifies — one of the Holy Spirit’s roles, as we will see. In both Hebrew and Greek, the words for breath, wind and spirit are the same, which has led to figurative expressions of the Spirit (e.g. John 3:8, “The wind blows where it wishes, and you hear the sound of it, but cannot tell where it comes from and where it goes. So is everyone who is born of the Spirit”, cf. Job 33:4).

Secondly, in general, there has been a failure to perceive the Holy Spirit as an individual Person rather than a mere ‘force’. The wrong impression is often given in many Christian circles that there is some kind of super­natural energy or force called ‘the Spirit’ which takes over a person and always makes them do weird and wacky things. This is a somewhat dangerous way to perceive the Almighty. I have personally come across a great many professing believers whose approach to the Holy Spirit can only be described as being something akin to a ‘genie in a bottle’ — very similar to the occult in the manner in which this force is administered and displayed, as if it is something which humans can just summon up for their own subjective use of a ‘pyrotechnic’ nature.

A.     His Deity

There are many places where “Lord” in the Old Testament, as a translation of the Hebrew word Yahweh (Jehovah), is shown in Scripture to be referring to the Holy Spirit. Examples: Compare Numbers 24:2-4 with 24:12-13. See also Acts 7:51; 28:25-27; 1 Corinthians 2:12; Hebrews 3:7-9; Hebrews 10:15-17; 2 Peter 1:21. Concerning the Deity of the Holy Spirit:

  • The Holy Spirit is said to be “eternal” (Hebrews 9:14).
  • The Holy Spirit is said to be omnipresent (Psalms 139: 7-8).
  • The Holy Spirit is said to be all-knowing (1 Corinthians 2:10‑11).
  • The Holy Spirit is said to be the Creator of the universe (Isaiah 40:12-13).
  • The Holy Spirit is called “Lord” (2 Corinthians 3:17-18).
  • The Holy Spirit is said to be the giver of life — both material and spiritual (John 6:63; 2 Corinthians 3:6; 1 Peter 3:18).
  • The Holy Spirit is actually spoken of as “God” (Acts 5:3-4).
  • The Holy Spirit can be “blasphemed” (Matthew 12:32). Only God can be blasphemed, at a cost of eternal condemnation (Mark 3:28-29). Thus, the Holy Spirit must be God.
  • The Holy Spirit is spoken of as being co-equal with the other divine Persons of the Trinity (e.g. 2 Corinthians 13:14; Ephesians 3:16-19; 1 Peter 1:2; Matthew 28:19; Ephesians 2:22; 1 Corinthians 12:4-6; Ephesians 3:4-6; Ephesians 4:4-6; Luke 12:11-12).
  • The Holy Spirit dwells in us as in His temple, which is said to be the “dwelling place of God” (1 Corinthians 3:16; 6:19; Ephesians 2:22).

Those are but a handful of proofs of the deity of the Holy Spirit. There are many more.

B.     His Distinct Personality

The fact that the Holy Spirit is a distinct personality rather than some force or a ‘mode’ of God can be shown by the fact that personal properties are used about Him, personal pronouns are used to refer to Him, and that personal acts are attributed to Him. Here are a number of Scriptures proving this:

a) Personal Properties are Used About Him

  •  The Holy Spirit is said to be endowed with wisdom (Isaiah 11:2; Ephesians 1:17).
  •  The Holy Spirit searches out all things (1 Corinthians 2:10).
  •  The Holy Spirit is said to “know” (1 Corinthians 2:11).
  •  Paul speaks of the love of the Holy Spirit (Romans 15:30).
  •  The Holy Spirit can be lied to (Acts 5:3-4). One cannot lie to a force or mode. One can only lie to a person.
  •  The Holy Spirit can be “tested” (Acts 5:9).
  •  The Holy Spirit can be grieved (Isaiah 63:10; Ephesians 4:30). Can one grieve a mere “force” or “mode of God”? I think not!
  •  The Holy Spirit can be insulted (Hebrews 10:29). One cannot insult a “force” or “mode of God”. Only a distinct personality could be insulted.
  •  The Holy Spirit is called the “Comforter” or “Advocate” or “Helper” (John 14:16,26; 15:26; 16:7). These are all words describing personality, and are various translations of the Greek word parakletos, which means literally “the one who is called alongside”.

The second proof that the Holy Spirit has distinct personality is that:

b) Personal Pronouns are Used to Refer to Him

The word pneuma, spirit, is itself neuter in the Greek. But the Holy Spirit is frequently spoken of in the mascu­line gender. Examples: “He shall teach you all things” (John 14:26).

“Nevertheless I tell you the truth. It is to your advantage that I go away; for if I do not go away, the Helper will not come to you; but if I depart, I will send Him to you. and when He has come, He will convict the world of sin, and of righteousness, and of judgment”.

John 16:7-8

This use of personal pronouns is particularly promi­nent in a passage in John’s gospel where they are used of all three Persons in the context of indwelling the believer:

“If you love Me, you will keep My commandments. And I will ask the Father, and He will give you another Advocate to be with you forever—the Spirit of truth. The world cannot receive Him, because it neither sees Him nor knows Him. But you do know Him, for He abides with you and will be in you… If anyone loves Me, he will keep My word. My Father will love him, and We will come to him and make Our home with him”.

John 14:15-17, 23

This is a mightily powerful Trinitarian passage. Just examine it carefully. Here the Holy Spirit is referred to as having distinct personality from both the Father and the Son. For it is the Father who gives a “Helper” (the Holy Spirit — “the Spirit of Truth”) who is “other” than the Lord Jesus Christ (“the Father… will give you another Helper”). And this “Spirit of Truth” (the Holy Spirit) is referred to as “He” and “Him” no less than five times within two verses. To cap it all, after having said that the Holy Spirit “will be in you”, the Lord Jesus then refers to the Father and Himself as the We who will come to the believer and make Their home with him. To be indwelt by the Holy Spirit is also to have the Father and the Son. Meditate on that carefully, for is a tremendously mind-blowing thought! Moreover, those verses are one of the plainest examples of distinct threefold personality being a hallmark of the being of God.

The third proof that the Holy Spirit has distinct personality is that

c) Personal Acts are Attributed to Him

Here I am listing the many personal acts which are attrib­uted to the Holy Spirit as a distinct Person. In the Old Testament, the Holy Spirit was highly active, carrying out many acts which can only be attrib­uted to a distinct personality:

  •  The Holy Spirit accomplished God’s will in the world (Isaiah 32: 15-16; Isaiah 34:16; Zechariah 4:6).
  •  The Holy Spirit aroused and energised the Judges (Judges 3:10; 6:34; 11:29; 13:24-25).
  •  The Holy Spirit brought messages from God (Numbers 24:2-3; 2 Samuel 23:2; 2 Chronicles 20:14-15; 2 Chronicles 24:20; Ezekiel 11:5; Zechariah 7:12).
  •  The Holy Spirit brought the abiding presence of God (Numbers 27:18; 1 Samuel 10:6-7; 16:13; Isaiah 59:21; Haggai 2:5).
  •  The Holy Spirit brought the power of God (Judges 14:6; 14:19; 15:14-15; 1 Samuel 10:6,10; 1 Samuel 11:6-7; 1 Samuel 16:13; Micah 3:8).
  •  The Holy Spirit gave guidance (1 Kgs.18:12; Psalms 143:10; Isaiah 48:16; 63:14).
  •  The Holy Spirit imparted knowledge (Exodus 35:31; 1 Chronicles 28:12; Isaiah 11:2).
  •  The Holy Spirit imparted wisdom and skill (Genesis 41:38-39; Exodus 31:3—5; 35:31; Deuteronomy 34:9; Daniel 5:11-14).

The Holy Spirit, as a divine Person, has carried out personal acts throughout the whole of Scripture:

  •  The Holy Spirit creates (Genesis 1:2-3; Job 33:4; Psalms 104:30; Isaiah 40:12-14).
  •  The Holy Spirit is the Giver of life (Ezekiel 37:14-15).
  •  The Holy Spirit is the Sustainer of life (Genesis 6:3; Job 32:8; 34:14-15).
  •  The Holy Spirit regenerates (John 3:3-6; Titus 3:4-8).
  •  The Holy Spirit justifies (1 Corinthians 6:11).
  •  The Holy Spirit sanctifies (Romans 15:16; 1 Corinthians 6:11; 2 Thessalonians 2:13; 1 Peter 1:2).
  •  The Holy Spirit convicts and brings a spirit of repen­tance (Psalms 51:1,11; Isaiah 63:10-11; John 16:7-11).
  •  The Holy Spirit counsels (John 14:16-17; John 14:26; John 15:26; John 16:7).
  •  The Holy Spirit prophesies: “The Spirit expressly states that in later times some will abandon the faith to follow deceitful spirits and the teachings of demons” (1 Timothy 4:1). “He who has an ear to hear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches” (Revelation 2:7, etc.).
  •  The Holy Spirit teaches: “You gave Your good Spirit to instruct them” (Nehemiah 9:20). The Holy Spirit teaches those who are persecuted what to say (Luke 12:12). “He shall teach you all things” (John 14:26; 16:12-13).
  •  The Holy Spirit calls into service: “As they ministered to the Lord and fasted, the Holy Spirit said, ‘Now separate to Me Barnabas and Saul for the work to which I have called them’” (Acts 13:2).
  •  The Holy Spirit anoints (Acts 10:38; 1 John 2:20,27).
  •  The Holy Spirit gives the “call” through the Gospel (2 Thessalonians 2:13-14).
  •  The Holy Spirit strives (Genesis 6:3).
  •  The Holy Spirit restrains evil (Genesis 6:3-5,12).
  •  The Holy Spirit forbids (Acts 16:6-7).
  •  The Holy Spirit illumines (John 14:26). He even illumines unbelievers on a temporary basis (Hebrews 6:4-6). As one commentator puts it: “Here the Holy Spirit imparts light, but He does not always apply that light unto salvation” (cf. Matthew 7:22).
  •  The Holy Spirit glorifies Christ (John 16:14-15).
  •  The Holy Spirit inspires (2 Timothy 3:16; 2 Peter 1:21).
  •  The Holy Spirit intercedes (Romans 8:26-27).
  •  The Holy Spirit reveals (Luke 2:26; John 14:26; 16:12-15; Acts 21:11; 1 Corinthians  2:9-13; Ephesians 3:5-7).
  •  The Holy Spirit teaches us to pray (Romans 8:26).
  •  The Holy Spirit seals the disciple of Christ (2 Corinthians 1:22; 5:5; Ephesians 1:13-14; 4:30).
  •  The Holy Spirit testifies (John 15:26; Acts 5:30-32; Romans 8:16; Hebrews 10:15-17). Also note that in Acts 5:32, the Holy Spirit is referred to as one “whom God has given to those who obey Him”. “Whom” not “what”. He is a distinct Person rather than a force or mode.
  •  The Holy Spirit dispenses gifts. “When [the Lord Jesus] ascended on high, he led captives in his train and gave gifts to men” (Ephesians 4:8) It is the Holy Spirit who dispenses those gifts according to His will: “But one and the same Spirit works all these things, distributing to each one individually as He wills” (1 Corinthians 12:11; Hebrews 2:4). Notice again that those gifts are not the result of a force or power but are distributed by “He” who “wills”. This is distinct Divine personality rather than some manic force which makes people go ‘blotto’, such as we see in so many so-called ‘churches’ today.

Much more could be given in relation to the distinct personality of the Holy Spirit. However, just from what has been revealed above, we can see without a doubt that the Holy Spirit cannot be merely an aspect or mode of God. Neither can He be a mere force. The Holy Spirit acts in conjunction with the Father and the Son as a distinct personality. He is called “He” and “Him” in the same sentence as that in which the Father and the Son are called “He” or “Him”. Like the Father and the Son, the Holy Spirit is very God of very God.

CONCLUSION

The concept of a Triune God is part of the warp and woof of Scripture, both explicitly and implicitly. Whether one finds it completely understandable is not the issue. That is how the Lord has chosen to reveal Himself to us. If He has chosen that pathway, then who are we to argue with it? We should instead relish in attempting to understand the glory that has been revealed to us, knowing that our puny minds only touch the surface. Mystery, in relation to God, carries its own beauty and does not need to make us withdraw from attempting to grapple with such a major teaching.

The Trinity Means that God Can be Revealed

At the very least, the Trinity means that God can be revealed. Such revelation is vital in this world. The Christian Gospel itself is Trinitarian in its origins and scope. Just as the Father with His Spirit sent His Son into this world to seek out the poor in spirit, the weak, the oppressed and the searchers for truth, so we are to do the same in our revealing to others what the Father, Son and Holy Spirit have revealed to us. That is the essence of the Gospel, the goal of which is not to be able to chalk up “X” number of successes one has been able to achieve in a mission, or to attract a greater number of backsides onto church pews. Those are human power-games.

The transformation of a soul into an outward-looking, God-loving, Christ-centred, caring person is both the essence and goal of the gospel. After that has been achieved, all else falls into place. Understanding this would instantly dissolve some of the madness of the world and all the hideous sectarianism of the visible church.

I am not speaking of a sentimental or maudlin love here. This is not the plastic “love” of the pop song or the escapist, bypassing “love and peace” of the hippy or New Ager. It is instead a love which is not afraid to tell the truth (whether practical or spiritual), a love which does not hesitate to expose false­hood and corruption, a love which protects against decep­tion and refuses to be deceived at any cost — and yet, at the same time, it is a love which seeks to heal unnecessary division, alleviate oppression and cauterize the open wound of hatred in both the world and in the visible church.

The Love Within the Trinity Should be Reflected in Our Own Relationships

It is Trinitarian love which is at the heart of the Gospel, and it is Trinitarian love which is so needed today. Just as the Holy Spirit gets wholly alongside of us as the Counsellor/Helper/Comforter/ Advocate/Paraclete, so we should get alongside of others. Similarly, the love which the Father has for the Son is compared by the Lord Jesus to the love which God has for His children. Shortly before the Lord Jesus went to the Cross, He prayed to the Father in His priestly prayer in John 17:23-24,

“so that the world may know that You sent Me and have loved them just as You have loved Me. Father, I want those You have given Me to be with Me where I am, that they may see the glory You gave Me because You loved Me before the foundation of the world”.

John 17:23-24

All true fellowship in this world has the Trinitarian fellowship of the Godhead as its basis. For the Godhead is the supreme demonstration of true community. The reality of the Trinity means that we can know of that mutual love between the Father for the Son, and the patience and care of the Holy Spirit for us and be inspired by it in our own ethical and pastoral attitudes and actions. The Lord Jesus prayed to the Father about His disciples: “that they all may be one, as You, Father, are in Me, and I in You; that they also may be one in Us” (John 17:21). There is that Divine “Us” again. Our Lord fully intended that the love existing in the Trinity should be reflected in our own relationships. That is one of the most powerful messages behind the plurality of the Godhead which we call the Trinity.

Therefore, any proclamation of a gospel which issues in browbeating, manipulation, showboating, self-righteousness, shibboleths, social exclusivism or sectarianism is merely a witness to the emptiness of that gospel. The entire purpose of the Law of God is love, because “love is the fulfillment of the law” (Romans 13:10). “For all the law is fulfilled in one word, even in this: ‘You shall love your neighbor as yourself’” (Galatians 5:14). The message of the Trinity is love in its highest form and is an inspiration for all.

The Plurality in the Godhead Provides the Key to the Gospel

The Triune God — as both Creator and Redeemer — can be revealed and communicated as the fount of all things and the heart of love. He has reached down into this sinful, self-centred world with a message of hope, providing the only way to truth and salvation: The Father reconciling us to Himself through the sacrifice of His Son and the mediation of the Holy Spirit. Trinitarian reconciliation, sacrifice and mediation. The plurality in the Godhead provides the key to the Gospel and the inspira­tion for the love which should abound as a result of that Gospel. As the Lord Jesus Christ put it:

“Righteous Father, although the world has not known You, I know You, and they know that You sent Me. And I have made Your name known to them and will continue to make it known, so that the love You have for Me may be in them, and I in them”.

John 17:25‑26

When the love with which the Father loves the Son is mirrored in our own lives (John 17:26), and when we behold the glory which the Father has given to the Son (John 17:24), and when “the love of God has been poured out in our hearts by the Holy Spirit who was given to us” (Romans 5:5), we bear witness to a staggering transformation which can have no other source than the Triune God revealed in the Bible. In other words, the Trinity is at the heart of both the Gospel and the lives we are to lead as holders of the banner of the Gospel and in the sanctifying power of the Holy Spirit who is God’s guarantee of our inheritance (Ephesians 1:14).

Humanly speaking, we may have difficulty getting our heads around all of what I have written about above. But that does not negate its veracity. On the contrary, it should squeeze some extra faith out of us so that we bask in the glorious mystery of it all, knowing innerly that it is true because the Good Book says that it is so. May we be both believers in, and witnesses to, the blessed Three-in-One. In the days when hymns were forthright, non-maudlin and full of teaching, a hymnwriter famously wrote:

“Holy, holy, holy! Lord God Almighty!
All Thy works shall praise Thy name, in earth and sky, and sea;
Holy, holy, holy; merciful and mighty!
God in three persons, blessed Trinity!”

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© Copyright, Alan Morrison, 2023
[The copyright on my works is merely to protect them from any wanton plagiarism which could result in undesirable changes (as has actually happened!). Readers are free to reproduce my work, so long as it is in the same format and with the exact same content and its origin is acknowledged]